The CSG Report, which outlined compre- 14 hensive proposals for the working of the new Parliament, was published on 15 January 15 This is also a power vested in parliamentary committees which 30 are made up of between 5 and 15 MSPs selected according to the balance of the various 31 political parties and groupings in the Parliament. Interested parties respond to the Green Paper and are supposed to have a say 18 in how legislation is framed.
Fairclough —41 provides a useful discourse analysis 19 of the text of the Green Paper on welfare reform. The others are press agentry, two-way asymmetrical and two-way symmetrical. Prime Minister. Cutlip et al. It has to adjust and adapt as both it and its environment change. The role of public relations is to develop 12 and maintain relationships with these groups in order for the organisation to meet its 13 goals.
If these consequences are adverse, then a public rela- tions problem or issue is created. This relationship holds good for both 19 internal and external publics. Human resources is a good example of such 26 a subsystem. Other functions focus on the marketing and distribution of products and 27 are called disposal subsystems. Adaptive subsystems help the organisation to adjust 28 when the environment in which it operates changes; research and development and 29 strategic planning departments are good examples.
Used by permission of Harcourt Inc. They straddle the edges of an organisation liaising both between its 3 internal subsystems and between it and the external environment which contains its 4 various publics.
In this strategic role, public relations is usually seen to 6 be part of the management subsystem. They provide a counselling role, advising what and how to commu- 10 nicate and they can also provide an implementation role by undertaking the communi- 11 cation on behalf of the subsystems. For example, it will help the human resources 12 department, part of the maintenance subsystem, with internal communication 13 programmes or the marketing department, part of the disposal subsystem, with product 14 promotion campaigns.
See also Chapter 11 for a discussion of systems theory relating 15 to internal communications. Effective organisations have a sense of purpose. They 21 know where they are going and they know how they are going to get there. Alternatively the vision may be 25 more broad-based and generic. For example, universities exist to provide higher educa- 26 tion; their purpose is broadly the same — to undertake teaching, research and consul- 27 tancy.
However, even within that broad category there are those with different priorities; 28 some are research driven, some want to serve a regional community, some specialise 29 in certain subjects. This second element will be discussed later in this chapter. They do this in two ways. Second, they are knowledge- 48 able about the attitudes and behaviours of the various publics of the organisation who 49 populate this broader environment because they are in regular dialogue with those publics.
PR professionals use the same techniques as those available to strategic 5 planners. They will undertake analyses of the environment using techniques such as 6 PEST. This technique provides a framework that allows analysis of the environment 7 by categorising it under various headings; a short example is given in Figure 4.
They recommend an expansion of 11 the framework to encompass the Environment, that is, the physical or green environ- 12 ment, Information and the Legal or regulatory aspects. Global warming, pressures to move from car-based transport, sustainability, 16 waste disposal and so on are all key issues. The ubiquity and power of the internet radically alters 19 the past position where certain kinds of information have been the protected domain 20 of a privileged few.
Furthermore the ability of outsiders to look into organisations trans- 21 parency and the ability of insiders to transmit information outside the organisation 22 porosity bring new challenges. In addition 24 to growing amounts of national legislation, there are transnational regulations such as EU 25 directives and international agreements such as GATT.
As 2 organisations become increasingly global they need to be aware of religious and social 3 differences between and within the countries in which they operate. Organisational 4 cultures differ too and values between suppliers, distributors and organisations or even 5 different parts of the same organisation can be quite distinct. There are no standard responses; the drivers will be different depending 10 on the country, sector and organisation. It is also vital to identify the inter-relationships 11 between the key drivers.
Economic trends may force political decisions and technology 12 often affects lifestyles and social interactions. For example, the internet has transformed 13 working, purchasing and leisure patterns. Public relations planners are 23 in a privileged position in that they interact with organisational publics frequently: their 24 job is to manage and facilitate the communication between the organisation and its 25 publics, sometimes in conjunction with colleagues from elsewhere in the organisation.
A typical organisation interacts with an enormous number 40 of publics. Esman has usefully categorised these into four types of organisa- 41 tional linkages, as illustrated by Grunig and Hunt Figure 4.
Functional linkages provide input into 44 the organisation and consume its outputs. Normative linkages are those with peer organ- 45 isations, and diffused linkages are with those who have no formalised relationship with 46 the organisation, but have an interest in it. Managing and interpreting information requires 36 both research and analytical capabilities and is an indication of the skills set required 37 of senior practitioners.
Public 40 relations practitioners are used to dealing with complex situations and of making sense 41 of inter-linked issues involving a variety of publics. Thus they can make a valuable 42 contribution to strategy-making by offering their skills of interpretation and counselling. Used by permission of Chapman and Hall 27 28 opinion is moving on a particular issue. Public affairs departments are often plugged 29 into government thinking on prospective legislation or have access to think tanks who 30 specialise in futures.
Their boundary-spanning role helps public relations professionals 31 maintain an independent perspective to decision-making. These models describe the 37 process of information gathering required when organisations are deciding which 38 strategic approach to take.
Thus, relatively closed 3 organisations do not take much account of the environment, they do not adapt to 4 changing circumstances and usually they eventually cease to exist.
Relatively open 5 organisations are very responsive to the environment. They are acutely aware of change, 6 and adjust and adapt to either counteract or accommodate it. A key concept is that the 7 organisation both affects and is affected by the environment in which it operates. Open organisations, on the other hand, monitor their environment to gauge and 10 anticipate change and decide on a course of action before they are driven to one by 11 external events.
For example, media relations is judged on the number of releases 20 produced and the level of press cuttings achieved, not on the appropriateness or effec- 21 tiveness of the output.
Genuine feedback is rarely sought, only feedback 24 on what techniques will make the transmission of information more effective. The emphasis here is on reciprocity — communication with 41 publics takes the form of a genuine dialogue the two-way systematical approach advo- 42 cated by Grunig and Hunt and explained in Chapter 1 and the organisation is as likely 43 to change as the target publics as a result of the communication exchange. This idea 44 is illustrated in Figure 4. Where there is a differ- 47 ence in what these should be, change can be initiated before real issues or problems 48 arise.
This proactive stance is important for organisational decision-making and that is 49 why public relations practitioners who operate in this fashion are often part of the dominant coalition. In other words, practitioners 29 are principal decision-makers as opposed to just communicating results of decision- 30 making. However, more is possible. The internet can be used to build dialogue in 37 a potent and dynamic way by providing a level of immediacy, reach and interactivity 38 that has been impossible in the past.
They will 6 not be involved in organisational decision-making. Boundary-spanners in a very real sense, 35 communication facilitators remove barriers and establish links between all interested 36 parties.
In general, junior practitioners tend to operate at the technician 48 level while senior practitioners undertake the management roles.
Used by permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 22 23 area of expertise. For example, journalists who move into a public relations role can 24 handle media relations at all levels in a highly skilled and effective way.
Figure 4. Externally management 43 communication is about communicating organisational vision to win the support of 44 external stakeholders. This 47 includes identifying customer needs. Most of these activities Van Riel states to be within the remit of public relations.
The second question would require a list covering several 13 pages and that would be inappropriate here. Many of the channels used are described 14 later in this book, but some of the most commonly used in public relations are the 15 media, conferences and exhibitions, direct literature, sponsorship, in-house journals, 16 corporate identity programmes, special events, corporate advertising and the internet.
He suggests that each channel be borne in mind 2 when an organisation considers communicating with its publics. This model provides a 6 clear demonstration of the scope and complexity of the public relations role. There is no single 13 blueprint for either the structure or the range of activities that should be undertaken, 14 15 and priorities will differ in every organisation.
New, fast growing and turbulent sectors such 23 as the dot. Neither type of environment requires the public relations effort to be more 25 or less strategic, but the speed of development and the in-built capability to change 26 direction quickly will be more of a prerequisite in the latter.
A manufacturer or 28 retailer of fast-moving consumer goods could well require a heavier marketing commu- 29 nication focus whereas working for a trade or professional body may mean that member- 30 ship communication or lobbying are the primary public relations activities. It may even be outsourced to an individual or consul- 40 tancy. The range of activities may well be restricted and undertaken by a public rela- 41 tions generalist.
Large organ- 43 isations will have larger public relations departments. A number of factors need to be considered. Some organisations, for example 2 niche manufacturers of space components, may have a limited range of publics. Some organisations have publics that form fairly discrete 5 blocks, for example car dealers have groups of customers, suppliers and employees.
Some organisations have publics in a wide geographical area or 8 several socio-economic bandings. Others focus on concentrated areas. Employees are an example of a public intimately con- 15 nected with an organisation. Other publics will have a more remote connection — 16 again pressure groups are an example. Usually organisations start small. The owners know suppliers, customers 27 and employees. The public relations effort will often be one-to-one and the emphasis 28 is often on growth, thus marketing communication will be a priority.
At this stage a generalist public relations professional may 31 be engaged to raise awareness of the company, its products and services. Internally, 32 the formal communication programme may begin. Now the organisation is likely to be well established. Employee communication is likely to be well devel- 39 oped, community relations will be a part of the agenda as the organisation takes on 40 a corporate social responsibility agenda and developing and maintaining a cohesive 41 corporate identity will be a priority.
The in-house department of several staff, usually 42 with specialisms, could well be complemented by engaging public relations consul- 43 tancies to work in such areas as government affairs and investor relations. Open organisations usually avoid decline by adjusting their activities or 45 moving into new areas.
However, organisations do move into periods of temporary 46 or permanent decline, for example through takeover, legislative change or bad 47 management. Here public relations has a key role to play in identifying issues in 48 the environment in order to avert crises.
Ultimately, there is nothing public relations 49 can do if a business is non-viable. However, it is possible to exit with dignity and with reputation intact, and public relations has a key role to play.
To most marketers public relations means 23 publicity, that is, obtaining usually media coverage in support of products and services. Marketing has broadened its parameters to include 30 relationships with internal customers employees and the broader external stakeholder 31 community.
Even so, different professional outlooks 34 do maintain diverse perspectives which are of value to organisations. What is obviously clear is that internally there needs to be 39 a clear understanding of the roles of each discipline and where the responsibilities lie. However, 44 there is rejoicing when a public relations professional is made a chief executive or 45 director of corporate communications with marketing as a subservient partner.
What 46 is good for public relations is that as many people as possible from as many disciplines 47 as possible are aware of the contribution that public relations can make in both strategic 48 and tactical ways. It is a sign that public rela- 4 tions has come of age that its unique contribution in stakeholder relations is recognised.
It is true that the dialogue skills that public relations staff acquire with 9 a range of stakeholder groups will be invaluable, but organisations also need to sell or 10 obtain support for their products and services to survive. A good general reputation, 11 often maintained through sustained public relations activity, will attract customers and 12 users of services.
Good service and products enhance reputation. Organisations need 13 both marketing and public relations.
The communication aspects of these matters, including 22 how to communicate with employees and external stakeholders, would normally 23 involve public relations expertise.
Control of employee communication and the division 25 between what is rightly communicated by human resources and public relations are 26 areas of potential debate. This might involve communication with employees who are 28 located within the local community and also with potential employees, and again 29 require careful assignment of responsibility for communication.
Lawyers are concerned that what is said may rebound on the organisa- 42 tion and often point out that there is no requirement to say anything. They value openness and 49 want to maintain dialogue.
They are also acutely aware of the need to respond quickly to given situations — again the legal process usually takes time. Product recalls and libel cases usually include both 3 a public relations and a legal dimension and it is not uncommon for legal representa- 4 tives and public relations professionals to speak on the same issue for an organisation.
As expert boundary-spanners, public relations professionals can play a key role 13 in the dominant coalition by gathering and interpreting information from the external 14 and internal environments and presenting this as strategic intelligence. On the basis of 15 this, organisations can adapt and change or initiate a dialogue so that the continued 16 support of their key stakeholding publics can be assured. This 24 has clearly demonstrated the variety of range and emphasis that public relations can 25 have and has indicated the panoply of skills the expert practitioner requires.
In short there is a call for 29 genuine public relations within the management context. Indeed, Cutlip et al. They go on to suggest that the latter contributes to making the democratic 24 process more effective. Private 40 income was necessary as the professions offered little pay. Later, specialised know- 41 ledge became the basis for entry Cutlip et al. Most of its practitioners have little training in the 32 social sciences. Few have been trained in public relations. We must admit that 33 many people today who call themselves public relations practitioners still do not 34 measure up to professional standards.
They also have a set of values 40 and a code of ethics that discourage the use of their knowledge and technical skills 41 for antisocial purposes. Years of training are necessary to become a doctor, lawyer or accountant, 5 followed by more years of on-the-job training. The Commission on 12 Public Relations Education recommended that the content of undergraduate and post- 13 graduate courses should include mass communications, PR theories, media relations 14 techniques, research methodology, case studies, work placements and PR management 15 Cutlip et al.
A further commission in added ethics, law and evaluation to 16 the list IPRA This was updated by the work of the Public Relations Education Commission set up by the Public Relations Society of America PRSA in , which 18 looked at the knowledge and skills which should be included in undergraduate and 19 postgraduate courses. We 28 also strongly recommend [teachers] to continue to develop their professional experi- 29 ence while they hold teaching appointments. It was felt that this would raise the status of the profes- 38 sion in general, as well as that of the Institute.
The IPR moved towards tightening its 39 entry requirements. Using this matrix as a base, the IPR approved six courses in , including 45 vocational, undergraduate, postgraduate and masters programmes in the UK.
Since then, the number of approved courses has risen to eighteen. Mindful of the need to maintain standards 39 in its delivery, these courses are only available at a few venues again, details on the 40 IPR website.
IPR 47 research carried out in found that 98 per cent of senior managers in the industry 48 expected entrants to have a degree IPR This has led to a major initiative to 4 improve the commitment to training within the industry. The IPR has also started to 5 benchmark the provision of commercial training organisations with its Approved 6 Training Provider kitemark.
Public relations practitioners. The 34 emphasis is on practical techniques. The technocratic model is more associated with 35 professions, and consists of a systematic knowledge base founded on academic disci- 36 plines, the application of that base to practice, and supervised placements in practice.
The 38 third model, or post-technocratic, emphasises professional competence and bridges the 39 gap between education and employment. All IPR workshops now carry 14 an indication of their level, and the overall structure can be used by both individuals 15 and companies when planning their training requirements. Courses of the Approved 16 Training Providers are also linked to level and subject.
The framework has been constantly updated, and contains an indication of the skills needed to ensure that PR 18 practitioners can use new technology see later discussions on the implications of new 19 technology in Chapters 18, 19 and The PR sector has seen consistent 27 growth.
However, the industry has not been able to tool up 29 fast enough to satisfy demand. This will need to change. It has strict criteria for membership, and is developing a Diploma 36 in Consultancy Management. We will look at the content of these codes below. One problem with 39 the raising of standards within PR is that these organisations do not represent all of 40 those working in PR in the UK. The IPR has over 6, members, of which around 41 1, are students on the approved courses. The size of 44 the circulation of the trade publication PR Week is often used as a guide, and this is 45 currently 17, Many people may work in a public relations capacity for an organ- 46 isation, but may not be called a public relations practitioner.
Some estimates of the 47 numbers in PR are as high as 40,, but around 20, would probably be more 48 accurate. Despite the numbers game, it can be seen that the two associations account 49 for a maximum of two-thirds of the industry. Although still 11 small by national association criteria, the organisation represents around members 12 in over 70 countries, although there has been talk of it merging with the IPR as the 13 latter adopts a more global outlook.
Discrimination on any grounds is unacceptable professional 31 practice. Conditions to be taken into account when negotiating 33 fees for work are set out. Other recommended practice 36 papers issued by the IPR cover public relations and the law; the role and parameters 37 of PR practice; the use of embargoes, fees and methods of charging; and one of the 38 major issues which the IPR has been campaigning against, the use of charges for inclu- 39 sion of editorial in certain publications.
The IPR undertook a major consultation on its 40 Code in , and the revised Code is published on its website. Of course, the Charter is written with the members in mind, and 43 these are consultancies rather than individuals. Accuracy, openness about interests and regard to the public interest 48 are also stressed. There are recommendations for those in 2 investor relations about dealing with price sensitive information.
Healthcare profes- 3 sionals are directed to legislation and other relevant codes, and must ensure balanced 4 and accurate information is given. Parliamentary lobbyists have an extensive code which 5 relates to their conduct towards MPs and clients. The quality of consul- 9 tancy has improved over the past few years, but there is an increasing gulf between 10 those who are keen to add value and to make that value tangible, and those who 11 want to continue to trade on some black box mystique.
The latter are dinosaurs. In 38 per cent of the 16 countries, PR had been criticised for unethical conduct Lloyd However, as Director General 25 of the IPR, Colin Farrington, says 26 27 We are not equipped with police powers to investigate, and are reliant on complaints 28 before we act.
Whilst some might feel that as we are not a statutory body our disci- 29 plinary procedures are our own affair, the courts would expect us to act in a defen- 30 sible way.
There 41 are ten elements in the CMS, and member consultancies must score at least 50 per cent 42 in each section to pass. Client satisfaction must be measured and service delivery moni- 46 tored.
A commitment to training and development is also included. A lot of people have put a 9 lot of work into developing the professional standards, and we are committed to 10 upholding them. It is synonymous with trust and trust is the lubricant that 16 makes our practice function. Two years later 20 [he]. He was forced to resign. A further report on this topic was published in October 8 A review paper was then published, and further evidence was sought by May 9 The three bodies stated that they had adopted supple- 14 mentary and virtually identical codes to govern practice in this area.
The concept of social accountability is 46 becoming more widespread, and it is not only companies like the Body Shop and the 47 Co-operative Bank that are setting up social auditing systems. A report was commis- 48 sioned by BT at the beginning of to examine what roles companies could and 49 should take in society, and whether undertaking these roles was good for business Future Foundation They recognise that in order to achieve this, they 6 must get the message across about ethical and professional working standards, to counter 7 the historical beginnings of the industry in press agentry and publicity.
Whether or not 8 the IPR achieves chartered status, it has shown an increasing maturity in addressing 9 the concerns of the industry as a whole, rather than concentrating simply on the concerns 10 of its members. The problem, ironically in an industry which prides itself on the ability 11 of its practitioners to communicate, is one of getting the message across to the rele- 12 vant stakeholders in business and government.
The following case study demonstrates the importance of a strategic approach to corporate communication and 29 illustrates what can happen if symmetrical or reciprocal relationships with key stake- 30 holders are not effectively managed. The new bank would operate 7 only through telephones and computers. His 10 Christian Broadcasting Network reaches 55 million viewers a year. Utilising the internet and other media, these groups co-ordinated 19 attacks on the deal. They set up websites with links to the media and the bank to help 20 the public to learn more about the issue and to register their condemnation.
Media coverage became dominated by reports of city 44 councils, universities, trade unions, charities and churches threatening to close their 45 accounts.
A joint state- 2 ment said, 3 4 Dr Pat Robertson and Peter Burt, following a meeting in Boston yesterday, agreed 5 that the changed external circumstances made the proposed joint venture. In reaching this agreement Dr Robertson expressed regret that the media 7 comments about him had made it impossible to proceed. We would like to see the bank reaching out to minority groups 18 to rebuild its reputation for equal opportunities, which before the Pat Robertson busi- 19 ness was very good.
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